Wide bandwidth, low loss photonic bandgap fibers

ABSTRACT

Various embodiments include photonic bandgap fibers (PBGF). Some PBGF embodiments have a hollow core (HC) and may have a square lattice (SQL). In various embodiments, SQL PBGF can have a cladding region including 2-10 layers of air-holes. In various embodiments, an HC SQL PBGF can be configured to provide a relative wavelength transmission window Δλ/λc larger than about 0.35 and a minimum transmission loss in a range from about 70 dB/km to about 0.1 dB/km. In some embodiments, the HC SQL PBGF can be a polarization maintaining fiber. Methods of fabricating PBGF are also disclosed along with some examples of fabricated fibers. Various applications of PBGF are also described.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/750,559, filed Mar. 30, 2010, entitled “WIDE BANDWIDTH, LOWLOSS PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBERS,” which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C.§119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/165,328, filedMar. 31, 2009, entitled “WIDE BANDWIDTH, LOW LOSS PHOTONIC BANDGAPFIBERS.” This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) ofU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/319,208, filed Mar. 30, 2010,entitled “WIDE BANDWIDTH, LOW LOSS PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBERS,” and U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/329,479, filed Apr. 29, 2010,entitled “WIDE BANDWIDTH, LOW LOSS PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBERS.” Each of theabove-identified applications is hereby incorporated by reference hereinin its entirety.

This application is related to U.S. Pat. No. 7,209,619, entitled“PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBERS,” issued on Apr. 24, 2007, U.S. Pat. No.7,418,836, entitled “PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBERS,” issued on Sep. 2, 2008,and U.S. Pat. No. 7,792,394, entitled “PHOTONIC BAND GAP FIBERS,” issuedon Sep. 7, 2010. Each of the above-identified patents is herebyincorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

1. Field

This application relates to optical fibers in general and to photonicbandgap fibers in particular. Some aspects of this application aredirected towards a photonic bandgap fiber having increased transmissionbandwidth.

2. Description of Related Art

Hollow core (HC) photonic bandgap fibers (PBGF) can be useful for manyapplications. Light in hollow core photonic bandgap fibers issubstantially confined to a hollow core by a photonic bandgap in thecladding structure. Because light is largely guided in the air in hollowcore PBGFs, high nonlinear thresholds can be obtained. The highnonlinear threshold as a result of light guided mostly in air providesfor a wide range of applications. For example, high energy pulsecompression and wavelength-tunable Raman solutions are some possibleapplications that have been demonstrated recently. Transmission,delivery and shaping of optical pulses with very high peak powers arealso possible in such fibers. HC PBGFs can also be useful forspectroscopy of gases due to the increase in interaction length whenlight is in a low loss guided mode.

HC PBGFs with hexagonally arranged cladding structures have beendemonstrated and studied in the last decade. HC PBGFs having low loss,for example approximately 1 dB/km, and having a bandgap of approximately300 nm centered around 1550 nm have been previously reported. In someembodiments, the limited width of the bandgap can be a practicalconstraint. For example, in some embodiments, the center of the bandgapmay need to be carefully controlled to provide the correct transmissioncharacteristic at a pre-determined wavelength. In some embodiments, thebandgap width can also be important for applications that require lowthird order dispersion, such as pulse shaping, and for applicationswhich require wide bandgaps for new wavelength generation andspectroscopy.

SUMMARY

Various embodiments include hollow core (HC) photonic bandgap fibers(PBGFs) with a square lattice (SQL) configured with a wide transmissionwindow and low loss. Various embodiments described herein include fibersthat are fabricated with core and cladding pressure control thatimproves the air filling fraction. In at least some embodiments, arelative transmission window of at least about 35% (Δλ/λc=0.35) isobtained, and up to about 65% can be obtained, when Δλ is measured bythe width of the transmission curve at approximately 10% of the maximumintensity. Some embodiments describe a SQL photonic bandgap fiber withrelative bandgap above about 40%. Without subscribing to or requiringany theory, in various embodiments, the relative bandgap can be similarto the relative wavelength transmission window Δλ/λc, wherein λc is thecenter wavelength of the transmission curve.

In various embodiments described herein a HC SQL PBGF may be utilizedfor delivery of high peak power optical pulses, pulse shaping, or insensor applications. Some embodiments described herein comprise a methodfor fabrication of a HC PBGFs. Various embodiments described hereincomprise a method for fabricating a polarization maintaining (PM) HCPBGF. Various embodiments of a HC SQL PBGF may comprise 2-10 layers ofair-holes. Some embodiments describe a fiber having Δλ/λc=0.45 and aloss as low as approximately 70 dB/km with 5 layers of air holes.

Various embodiments described herein comprise a photonic bandgap fiber(PBGF) for propagating light having a wavelength, λ. In someembodiments, the fiber comprises a core, and a cladding disposed aboutthe core. The cladding may comprise a plurality of regions, at least oneregion having a dimension, Λ, and configured such that the cladding atleast partially surrounds a hole having a hole dimension, D. In someembodiments, the plurality of regions may be arranged as a rectangularlattice. In some such embodiments, the rectangular lattice may comprisea square lattice (e.g., a lattice having four-fold rotational symmetry).In various embodiments, the portions of the cladding form webs and nodesof the lattice such that at least a portion of the webs have adimension, d₂, and are configured as higher aspect ratio claddingmaterial portions. A portion of the webs may be connected to the nodesand at least a portion of the nodes may have a dimension, d₁, and beconfigured as lower aspect ratio cladding material portions. In variousembodiments, D/Λ is in a range from about 0.9 to about 0.995 and thePBGF is configured such that a relative wavelength transmission windowΔλ/λc is larger than about 0.35.

In various embodiments, the webs have a second dimension d₃, such thatthe ratio of d₃ to d₂ is at least approximately 5:1. In variousembodiments the ratio of d₃ to d₂ is at least approximately 10:1 or atleast 25:1.

In various embodiments, d₂/Λ maybe in a range from about 0.01 to about0.1, and d₁/Λ in a range from about 0.1 to about 0.5. In variousembodiments, Δλ/λc may be in the range from about 0.35 to about 0.65. Invarious embodiments, the rectangular lattice may comprise 2 to 5 layersof cladding material. In various embodiments, the fiber is drawn from apreform having webs and nodes having sizes larger than d₁ and d₂, andthe PBGF is configured such that a relative reduction in the node sizeis substantially less than a relative reduction in the web size. Invarious embodiments, the preform may be configured with preformparameters D/Λ=0.5-0.95, d₂/Λ=0.05-0.5, and d₁/Λ=0.2-0.6. In variousembodiments, an air filling fraction may exceed about 80%, and be up toabout 95%. In various embodiments, a dimension of the core may be in arange from about 10 μm to about 100 μm. In various embodiments, thefiber may be configured as a polarization maintaining (PM) SQL PBGF. Invarious embodiments the holes may contain air. In various embodiments,at least a portion of the high index cladding glass may comprise silica.

Various embodiments comprise a method of fabricating such a SQL PBGF.The method comprises stacking capillaries and rods to form a rectangularlattice. The rods can comprise an optical material. The method comprisesconstructing a preform, and drawing the preform into a fiber. In someembodiments, the method comprises controlling core and cladding pressureduring the drawing, with the core and cladding pressurized withdifferent pressures. The controlling of the core and cladding pressuresnarrows a web dimension, d₂, and substantially limits changes in nodedimension, d₁, of the SQL PBGF such that D/Λ is in a range from about0.9 to about 0.99.

In various embodiments, cladding holes may be pressurized from about 0.5to about 2.5 psi and the core may be pressurized from about of 0.2 toabout 2 psi, and the pressurization of cladding holes exceedspressurization of the core. In various embodiments a web dimension, d₂,is less than about 0.25 μm.

Various embodiments comprise a method of making a polarizationmaintaining (PM) PBGF. The method comprises forming a cane comprising alattice of cladding regions, and a core. The cane has a substantiallycircular outer diameter, and comprises an optical material. The methodcomprises forming a circular preform using the cane, modifying thecircular preform to form a non-circular shape, and drawing the preforminto a fiber. The method comprises transforming four-fold symmetry ofthe lattice into two-fold symmetry by deforming the core and thecladding during the drawing, thereby introducing birefringence into thefiber. In various embodiments the non-circular shape comprises flatboundary portions disposed opposite each other, and at a non-zero anglerelative to axes defining the lattice. In various embodiments thelattice comprises a rectangular lattice.

Various embodiments described herein comprise a system fortelecommunications, gas measurement, delivery of high peak power pulses,or laser pulse shaping, comprising a PBGF such as, e.g., an HC PBGF, anSQL PBGF, a PM SQL PBGF, and so forth.

In some embodiments, a SQL PBGF is disclosed. The SQL PBGF comprises acladding region having 2-10 layers of air-holes and configured toprovide a relative wavelength transmission window Δλ/λc larger thanabout 0.35 and minimum transmission loss in a range from about 70 dB/kmto about 0.1 dB/km.

In various embodiments a photonic bandgap fiber (PBGF) for propagatinglight having a wavelength, λ, is disclosed. The PBGF fiber comprises acore; and a cladding region disposed about said core. The claddingregion may comprise a plurality of features, the features having aperiodicity, Λ. The cladding region may be configured such that thecladding region at least partially surrounds a hole having a holedimension, D. In various embodiments, the plurality of features maybearranged as a rectangular lattice. The cladding region may comprise websand nodes of the lattice such that the webs have a width, d₂, and areconfigured as higher aspect ratio cladding material portions. In variousembodiments, the webs may be connected to the nodes, the nodes having adimension, d₁, and configured as lower aspect ratio cladding materialportions. In some embodiments, the D/Λ may be in a range from about 0.9to about 0.995 and the PBGF is configured such that a relativewavelength transmission window Δλ/λc is larger than about 0.35.

In various embodiments a photonic bandgap fiber (PBGF) for propagatinglight having a wavelength, λ is disclosed. The PBGF comprises a core;and a cladding disposed about said core. In various embodiments, thecladding comprises a plurality of regions, at least one region having adimension, Λ, and is configured such that the cladding at leastpartially surrounds a hole having a hole dimension, D. In variousembodiments, said plurality of regions can be arranged as a rectangularlattice. In various embodiments, the portions of the cladding can formwebs and nodes of the lattice such that at least a portion of the webshave a dimension, d2, and are configured as higher aspect ratio claddingmaterial portions. In various embodiments, a portion of the webs areconnected to the nodes. In various embodiments, at least a portion ofthe nodes can have a dimension, d1, and are configured as lower aspectratio cladding material portions. In various embodiments, therectangular lattice can comprise 2 to 5 layers of cladding material. Invarious embodiments, the D/Λ can be in a range from about 0.9 to about0.995 and the PBGF can be configured such that d2/d1 is less thanapproximately 0.15. In various embodiments, d1/Λ can be in a range fromabout 0.05 to about 0.3, and the PBGF can be configured such that Δλ/λcis in the range from about 0.35 to about 0.85. In various embodiments,Δλ/λc can be in the range from about 0.5 to about 0.85. In variousembodiments, the PBGF can have a relative bandgap greater thanapproximately 0.4.

A method of fabricating a PBGF having a core and cladding disposed aboutthe core is disclosed. In various embodiments, the cladding can comprisea plurality of regions, at least one region having a dimension L. Invarious embodiments, the cladding can at least partially surround a holehaving a hole dimension D. In various embodiments, the plurality ofcladding regions can be arranges as a rectangular or square lattice. Invarious embodiments, the portions of the cladding can form webs andnodes of the lattice such that at least a portion of the webs have adimension, d2, and are configured as higher aspect ratio claddingmaterial portions. In various embodiments, a portion of the webs areconnected to the nodes. In various embodiments, at least a portion ofthe nodes can have a dimension, d1, and are configured as lower aspectratio cladding material portions. In various embodiments, therectangular lattice can comprise 2 to 5 layers of cladding material. Invarious embodiments, the D/Λ can be in a range from about 0.9 to about0.995 and the PBGF can be configured such that d2/d1 is less thanapproximately 0.15. In various embodiments, d1/Λ can be in a range fromabout 0.05 to about 0.3, and the PBGF can be configured such that Δλ/λcis in the range from about 0.35 to about 0.85.

The method of fabricating can comprise constructing a preform bystacking capillaries and rods to form a rectangular lattice wherein therods comprise an optical material. The method of fabricating can furtherdrawing the preform into the PBG fiber; and controlling core andcladding pressure during drawing, wherein controlling the core andcladding pressure during drawing can relatively narrow a web dimension,d2, and substantially limit relative changes in node dimension, d1, ofsaid PBGF such that D/Λ is in a range from about 0.9 to about 0.99. Invarious embodiments, the core and cladding can be pressurized withdifferent pressures. In various embodiments, the cladding holes can bepressurized from about 0.5 to about 2.5 psi and the core can bepressurized from about of 0.2 to about 2 psi. In various embodiments,the pressurization of cladding holes can exceed pressurization of thecore. In various embodiments, the web dimension, d2, can be less thanabout 0.25 μm.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views that schematically illustrateexamples of the photonic band gap fibers (PBGFs) having a hexagonalcladding fabricated from a plurality of hollow tubes with 7 and 19tubes, respectively, removed to form a core.

FIGS. 2A-2F are cross-sectional views that schematically illustrateexamples of PBGF designs having cladding formed from hexagonallyarranged microstructures that have wide transmission bandwidth and lowtransmission loss.

FIG. 3A is cross-sectional view that schematically illustrates anexample of a hollow core (HC) photonic band gap fibers (PBGF) configuredwith a square lattice (SQL).

FIG. 3B is an exploded cross-sectional view of the HC SQL PBGF of FIG.3A, and illustrates a unit cell of the SQL PBGF.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a method offabrication for a SQL PBGF.

FIG. 5A schematically illustrates an example of a stack formed as asquare lattice and comprising capillaries, interstitial holes filledwith silica rods, and a core.

FIG. 5B is a cross-sectional view that schematically illustrates anexample of a preform cane representing a SQL PBGF at an intermediatestage of fabrication.

FIG. 5C is an exploded cross-sectional view of the cane schematicallyillustrated in FIG. 5B.

FIG. 6 schematically illustrates an example of a system for fabricationof a HC SQL PBGF.

FIG. 7A is cross-sectional view that schematically illustrates anexample of a hollow core (HC) photonic band gap fiber (PBGF) configuredwith a square lattice (SQL)

FIG. 7B is an exploded cross-sectional view of the HC SQL PBGFschematically illustrated in FIG. 7A.

FIGS. 8A and 8B schematically illustrate examples of a construction of aSQL polarization maintaining (PM) fiber, and a corresponding preform.

FIG. 9A illustrates an image of a fabricated preform.

FIG. 9B illustrates an exploded region of the image of FIG. 9A.

FIG. 9C is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image illustrating across-sectional view of a fabricated SQL PBGF drawn using the preform ofFIG. 9A.

FIG. 9D is an SEM image illustrating an exploded view of the fiberillustrated in FIG. 9C.

FIG. 10 is a plot illustrating measurements of the transmissionbandwidth of the fabricated fiber of FIGS. 9A-9D.

FIG. 10A is a plot illustrating the effect on transmission inembodiments of fibers fabricated using different cladding pressures.

FIG. 10B illustrates the loss and transmitted power for an embodiment ofan SQL PBGF.

FIG. 10C illustrates the loss and transmitted power for embodiments ofSQL PBGF.

FIG. 11A is a plot showing calculated mode density and bandgap regionsfor an embodiment of a square lattice, photonic band gap fiber (SQLPBGF).

FIG. 11B illustrates expanded views of the mode profiles shown in theinset of FIG. 11A.

FIG. 11C illustrates modes of coupled nodes for an embodiment of a SQLPBGF.

FIG. 11D illustrates defect modes for an all-solid photonic band gapfiber embodiment with hexagonal lattice.

FIG. 12 is a plot illustrating an example of the relationship betweenthe relative bandgap and the relative strut ratio (d₂/d₁). The insertshows labels for curves having different values of relative node size(d₁/Λ).

FIG. 13 is a plot illustrating an example of the effect of relative nodesize (d₁/Λ) on V_(A), V_(B) and relative bandgap.

FIG. 14 is a plot showing an example of the dependence of relativebandgap on the relative node size (d₁/Λ).

FIG. 15 illustrates an example of the dependence of the relative nodesize d₁/Λ (right vertical axis) and the relative strut ratio d₂/d₁ (leftvertical axis) on D/Λ, (where D is inner diameter of the tubes used inthe stack) for an embodiment of a triangular lattice PBGF and anembodiment of a square lattice (PBGF).

FIG. 16 is a block diagram schematically illustrating an example of asingle span telecommunication system incorporating a PBGF.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram schematically illustrating an example of amultiple span telecommunication system incorporating PBGFs.

FIGS. 18A and 18B are block diagrams schematically illustrating examplesof fiber chirped pulse amplification systems incorporating PBGFs.

FIG. 19A is a block diagram schematically illustrating an example of agas detection system based on spectral transmission measurement using aPBGF.

FIGS. 19B and 19C are schematic drawings of examples of a multiplexerand a demultiplexer, respectively, for combining and separating the gasand the light in the gas detection system of FIG. 19A.

FIG. 20A is a schematic illustration of an example of a gas detectionsystem based on backward Raman scattering in a PBGF.

FIGS. 20B and 20C are schematic drawings of examples of a multiplexerand a demultiplexer, respectively, for combining and separating the gasand the light in the gas detection system of FIG. 20A.

FIG. 21A is a schematic illustration of an example of a gas detectionsystem based on forward Raman scattering in a PBGF.

FIG. 21B is a schematic drawing of an example of a demultiplexer forseparating the gas and the light in the gas detection system of FIG.21A.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The conventional PBGF cladding structure with a hexagonal lattice haslimited bandgap, which may make it difficult to increase itstransmission window. An improvement in design and/or fabrication of aPBGF that may increase the transmission bandwidth while supportinglow-loss single mode propagation may be desirable.

Unless otherwise stated, throughout this application transmission windowgenerally refers to the width of a spectral transmission curve atapproximately 10% of maximum intensity. In some embodiments, where aspectral passband includes significant ripple or other fluctuations, theripple intensity may be represented by an average or median value.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,209,619 (the '619 patent), which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety for the subject matter specificallyreferred to therein and for all other subject matter it discloses,includes among the many structures described therein photonic bandgapfibers designed to provide a desired dispersion spectrum. Additionally,designs for achieving wide transmission bands and lower transmissionloss are also discussed. For example, a photonic bandgap fiber (PBGF)100 as shown in FIG. 1A was previously disclosed in the '619 patent.FIG. 1A and its related disclosure are incorporated herein by referencein its entirety. As disclosed in the '619 patent, the photonic band gapfiber (PBGF) 100 shown in FIG. 1A comprises a core 102 and a cladding104, wherein the cladding comprising a plurality microstructures 106arranged along hexagonally-shaped pathways about the core. Such acladding 104 may, for example, be formed by stacking small thin walltubes in a triangular pattern. As seen in FIG. 1A, this triangularpattern results in a hexagonal arrangement and may be referred to ashexagonal stacking as well. In some embodiments, the core 102 shown inFIG. 1A may be fabricated by excluding 7 tubes from the center of thehexagonally-shaped pathways. In FIG. 1B, the core 102 in the PBGF 100 isformed by leaving out 19 tubes resulting in a fiber with a larger coreas compared to the fiber illustrated in FIG. 1B. FIG. 1B of the '619patent and its related description is incorporated herein by referencein its entirety for the subject matter specifically referred to hereinand for all other subject matter it discloses.

The fibers illustrated in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B may be formed by drawingthe tubes. Although the cladding 104 is created by stacking circulartubes, in various embodiments, the final cross-section of the fiber 100may not contain circular holes because the interplay of surface tensionand viscous flow during the drawing process may distort the circularholes. In various embodiments, the holes may be pressurized duringdrawing. The pressure may play a major part in determining the finalhole geometry.

In various embodiments, the tubes may comprise hollow glass tubes, theglass portion comprising a relatively high index material in comparisonto the hollow portion, which is empty and may be evacuated or filledwith gas or air. After drawing, the glass portions fuse together forminga high index matrix having hollow regions therein. These hollow regionswithin the glass matrix form the microstructures 106 that provide thephotonic band gap confinement of the cladding 104.

As discussed above, fibers 100 illustrated in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B havinga hexagonal arrangement are made by removing 7 or 19 tubes from thecenter of a hexagonal stack. Various embodiments of these fibers mayexhibit a transmission window of less than 100 nm. Yet for manyapplications, a much wider transmission band can be useful. In variousembodiments disclosed in the '619 patent, a wider transmission band orwindow can be achieved by reducing the thickness of the high indexmaterials in the cladding. Additionally, transmission loss has a minimumat an optimized thickness of this high index material in the cladding.Higher leakage loss can result at very small thickness of the high indexcladding material, and thus, the cladding no longer provides goodconfinement. A greater number of tubes or resulting microstructures canbe removed from the center to provide for the desired core size. Apreform comprising the plurality of tubes with many tubes in the centerremoved can be drawn down to provide a desired core size. The claddingdimension can be substantially reduced when drawn down to give a desiredcore size. Accordingly, in various embodiments of a hexagonal PBGF, thetransmission band is large, while transmission loss may also besubstantially reduced.

An illustration of an example of a hexagonal stacked preform is shown inFIG. 2A, comprising a core 202, a cladding 204 formed by stacking tubes205. A core tube 207 is used to form the core 202. In this embodiment,small dimension for the high index material is achieved by leaving outmuch more than 19 tubes when forming the core 202 using the triangularlystacked cladding. The preform is then drawn to yield a certain core sizeafter drawing. The cladding dimension is much reduced compared to otherdesigns with a similar core size.

Apart from confinement loss, an additional loss mechanism in PBGF can befrom the presence of surface modes around the core. Guided core modescan couple power into the surface modes. Part of this coupled power issubsequently lost. The presence of surface modes is a direct consequenceof removing tubes in a regular matrix to form a core. Advantageously,however, the number of surface modes can be reduced by reducing orminimizing the width of the high index material around the core. Invarious embodiments disclosed in the '619 patent, the width of thecore/cladding boundary is much further reduced than that of thecorresponding cladding. Much stronger coupling exists between the guidedcore modes and these surface modes than that of the guided core modesand the modes supported in the cladding. The width reduction of thecore/cladding boundary is provided by the techniques described above forreducing the width of the high index material in the cladding structure.

Accordingly, as disclosed in the '619 patent, some loss in PBG fibers isdue to the presence of surface modes around the core and claddinginterface formed by the high index material closest to the core. Thishigh index material may comprises a layer, which may be annular orring-shaped as seen in the cross-section such as shown in FIG. 2A. Thishigh index material forms a high index boundary around the hollow core202 that has a relatively low index. The high index material layer maybe formed at least in part by the core tube 207. The surface modes aresupported by this high index boundary around the core. As describedabove, these surface modes can act as leakage channels for guided coremodes. The core modes can couple power into these surface modes and thepower is then lost through further coupling into cladding modes orradiation modes. One method of solving this problem is to reduce thewidth of the high index boundary around the core. Decreasing the widthof the high index boundary may be accomplished by removing the core tube207 in FIG. 2A. The improved design is schematically illustrated in FIG.2B, where the core tube 207 is removed to reduce the thickness of thehigh index boundary around the core 202. The designs in FIGS. 1A and 1Bcan also benefit from removing the core tubes. These resultant designsare shown in FIGS. 2C and 2D. The core/cladding can also be selectivelyetched.

Additionally, in a construction of a hexagonal PBGF, a further step canbe taken to eliminate surface modes. In this approach, a compositestructure 208 is used in place of the tubes closest to the core 202 asis schematically illustrated in FIG. 2E. As shown, each of the tubesaround the core is replaced with a composite tube. In this case, forexample, twelve composite structures are used. An example of thecomposite tube or structure 208 is shown in FIG. 2F. This compositestructure 208 is formed by stacking tubes 210 and then drawing the tubesdown to an appropriate size to incorporate into the final preform. Forexample, large bundle of stacked tubes forming the composite structureare then drawn down to the same dimension as the tubes in the preformstack.

Repeated stacking and drawing can be used to further reduce thedimension of the high index material. More of the cladding tubes,especially the ones nearer to the core 202, can be replaced by thecomposite structure 208 to be benefited by the small dimension of thehigh index material. This approach thus can substantially reduce theglass dimension around the core. The general approach illustrated inFIGS. 2A-2F is not limited to triangularly stacked cladding and can bealso be used in other methods of stacking. Other variations are alsopossible.

As disclosed in the '619 patent, circular ring-shaped regions offer someperformance advantages in comparison to hexagonal ring-shaped regionsillustrated in the FIGS. 2C and 2D. These advantages may include widertransmission bandwidth and lower transmission loss. Details arediscussed below in connection with results of simulations of Braggfibers. Such a Bragg fiber comprises the high and low index materialsarranged in alternating concentric ring or ring-shaped regions about thecore. A Bragg fiber is, however, difficult to implement when using airas the low refractive index material.

Recently a new class of hollow core fibers have been developed whichrelies not on photonic bandgap of the cladding for guidance, but also ona low density of modes of the cladding. This new class of hollow corefibers can provide an extremely wide transmission band, but they exhibithigh loss, typically, in the few dB/m. Thus, such HC fibers are not wellsuited for a wide range of applications where smooth spectraltransmission and low loss are important.

Hollow Core (HC) photonic bandgap fibers (PBGF) with a square latticehave received some consideration, and some advantages have beenrecognized. A cladding having square lattice, can advantageously providelarger nodes in the cladding and potentially much wider bandgaps. Somestudies of such fibers have been performed. To fabricate fibers having acladding with a square lattice, square stacking in preforms can be used.Recently, lossy air-core photonic crystal fibers with square latticecladding based on low mode density in the cladding has beendemonstrated. A theoretical study of fibers with square lattice claddingand experimental results obtained with fabricated embodiments of anair-core photonic bandgap fibers with a cladding of square lattice aredescribed herein. Wider photonic bandgaps may be possible with fibershaving square lattice cladding.

Various embodiments described herein comprise hollow core (HC) photonicbandgap fibers (PBGF) wherein a cladding is formed with a square lattice(SQL). As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, SQL fiberdesigns can include lattice configurations that are square (e.g., havingfour-fold rotational symmetry) as well as lattice configurations thatare rectangular. In various embodiments, the SQL structure may have acore formed by excluding 4, 9, 16, or 25 tubes. Some aspects ofhexagonal and/or Bragg fiber design and fabrication, as described in the'619 patent and above, are also applicable to SQL PBGFs. When comparedto Bragg fibers, however, accurate simulation may be difficult, in partbecause of resolution limits and numerical round-off considerations.

Use of SQL designs and performance evaluations are not widespread.Recently, however, it was recognized that HC SQL PBGFs can have someadvantages, particularly increased transmission bandwidth. As disclosedherein, in various embodiments, geometric properties of the cladding ofa SQL cladding structure were used and with fabrication techniquesdiscussed below, further extended the transmission window and decreasedthe loss of PBGFs relative to both hexagonal and prior SQL designs.

FIG. 3A schematically illustrates a cross section of a HC PBG fiber 300with a square lattice. The fiber 300 has a core 301, a cladding area 302with a square lattice comprising a high index glass, and an outercladding area which may comprise a polymer coating 303. The SQL PBGF ofFIG. 3A also includes core and cladding boundary 304, holes 305 at leastpartially surrounded by cladding material, nodes 306 and webs or struts307 of glass material connecting adjacent nodes. In various embodiments,the glass may comprise silica.

FIG. 3B is an exploded cross sectional schematic view of a portion ofthe fiber 320 of FIG. 3A that illustrates a region (e.g.: unit cell) ofthe square lattice. In this example the region is characterized with apitch Λ that is a dimension of the lattice region, a hole dimension D, anode size d₁, a web or strut length d₃ and a web or strut width d₂. Inthis example web or strut 307 comprises an elongated, high aspect ratio,cladding material portion. In some embodiments, the length to the widthratio of the webs may be approximately 5:1. In some embodiments, alength to the width ratio (d₃/d₂) of the webs or struts may beapproximately 10:1, 15:1, 20:1 or 25:1. The ratio D/Λ is affected by webor strut width d₂, and approaches unity with an exceedingly thin web orstrut dimension. The ratio d₁/Λ is determined at least in part by theshape of hole 305, particularly near the intersection of regions.Various ratios affect the formation of photonic bandgaps in the claddingarea 302.

In various embodiments of SQL PBGFs described herein, a widertransmission band or window can be achieved by greatly reducing thethickness of the high index webs 307 while maintaining relatively largehigh index nodes 306 in the cladding 302. Additionally, in variousembodiments, transmission loss has a minimum at an optimized structureof this high index material in the cladding. Higher leakage loss canresult at very small node size of the high index cladding material, andthus, the cladding no longer provides good confinement. In variousembodiments, the width of the core/cladding boundary is much furtherreduced than that of the corresponding node size in the cladding.Moreover, such a relative reduction of the core/cladding boundary may bebeneficial in the construction of hexagonal PBGFs, or for other PBGFlattice configurations.

In various embodiments to increase transmission bandwidth and reducetransmission loss of a PBGF, the cladding lattice is formed so thatnodes of appropriate dimensions can provide for significant largephotonic bandgaps, while supporting webs are reduced to the extentfeasible with fabrication technology, or sufficiently reduced so thatthey do not support any modes and/or affect modes supported by the nodeswhich would narrow the larger bandgap provided by the nodes. Aneffective way to increase photonic bandgap in the cladding is to reducethe width of high index webs of the cladding. The physical dimension ofthe optical material with the high refractive index is small enough soit supports few modes, with very little impact on the modes supported atthe nodes, so that photonic bandgap can form over certain wavelengthrange.

FIG. 4 is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example of a methodof fabrication that can be used to form an embodiment of an HC SQL PBGfiber on a square lattice. A stack is first formed by stackingcapillaries in a square lattice with interstitial spaces containingsilica rods as illustrated in step 401. A core in the stack is formed byexcluding a number of tubes. In various embodiments an optional largercore tube can also be used in place of the missing capillaries. Thestack is then inserted into a first tube, and a cane is drawn of fewmillimeters in diameter as illustrated in step 402. In variousembodiments, the cane can be approximately 1 m long. In someembodiments, the cane can be further sleeved with a silica tube toprovide the correct fiber diameters for the intended core sizes. Thecane is subsequently inserted into a second tube and drawn into a fiberas shown in step 403 resulting in a completed preform. In variousembodiments, fibers can be drawn with separate pressures in the core andcladding. Appropriate pressures can be applied to achieve significantexpansion during the draw process which can be advantageous in reducingthe strut size in the final fiber. In some embodiments, pressure in thecore can be as high as 1 psi while that in the cladding can be as highas 2 psi. The completed preform may be inserted into a furnace asillustrated in step 404 and a fiber having core/cladding pressurecontrol maybe drawn as shown in step 405. In various embodiments thedrawn fiber may have an outer diameter in a range from about 50 μm toabout 500 μm.

FIG. 5A schematically illustrates a stack 550 formed as a squarelattice. The interstitial space between capillaries 552 includes silicarods 558. Core tube 551, adjacent spacers, and tube 553 enclose thesquare stack. In this embodiment, the cladding structure incross-section comprises a two-dimensional periodic structure formed by asquare stacked arrangement that forms non-hexagonal layers. The rods 558eventually form relatively large nodes (e.g. nodes 306 in the SQL PBGFfiber 300), and the structure is beneficial in the formation of photonicbandgaps in the cladding.

FIG. 5B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view showing a HCSQL PBG cane at an intermediate stage of fabrication, and corresponds toa cross section image of the preform cane. Cane 500 has a core 501, acladding area 502 with a square lattice, and an outer cladding area 503.The cane 500 also includes an air core which is formed by excluding thepre-determined number of rods from the stack. Other features includecore and cladding boundary 504, holes 505, nodes 506 and webs 507. FIG.5C is an exploded cross sectional view of region 520 of FIG. 5B. FIG. 5Cfurther illustrates a cladding unit cell of the cane square lattice withpitch Λ, hole size D, node size d₁ and web or strut width d₂(corresponding with the characterization of SQL PBGF 300 of FIG. 3).

Cane 500 can then be inserted into another tube which completesfabrication of the preform. By way of example, a tube with an outerdiameter of 22.1 mm and inner diameter of 3.94 mm can be used. Thepreform can then be drawn into a fiber.

In some embodiments of a PBG SQL fiber having large transmissionbandwidth, a cane 500 may be configured with cane parameters D/Λ=0.86,d₂/Λ=0.14, and d₁/Λ=0.52. In various embodiments, parameter ranges mayinclude cane parameters in ranges such as, e.g., D/Λ=0.5-0.95,d₂/Λ=0.05-0.5, and d₁/Λ=0.2-0.6.

FIG. 6 schematically illustrates a system for fabricating a HC SQL PBGFwith pressurized fiber core and cladding. In various embodiments,preform 600 can be inserted in furnace 601 where it is drawn into fiber.In some embodiments, the preform 600 can be held by a preform-holder603. A pressure adaptor 604 is installed at the top of the preform 600where core pressure is controlled through tube 606 and cladding holepressure is controlled through tube 605. In various embodiments Argon orNitrogen can be used in the pressurization process.

The cladding holes and core can be pressurized differently during thefiber draw process. In various embodiments cladding holes can bepressurized to higher pressure than the core pressure. For example, insome embodiments, cladding holes are pressurized to a pressure of 1.6psi and the core is pressurized to a pressure of 0.9 psi. In variousembodiments, cladding holes can be pressurized to a pressure in therange of approximately 0.5-2.5 psi and the core is pressurized to apressure in the range of approximately 0.2-2 psi. In variousembodiments, drawing temperature can be about 1900° C. In variousembodiments a drawing temperature range of approximately 1850° C. toapproximately 2050° C. can be utilized. In at least one embodiment, thepreform is fed at a rate of approximately 3 mm/min and a fiber is drawnat a rate of approximately 100 m/min.

FIG. 7A schematically illustrates a cross-section of completed HC PBGfiber (and corresponds to the schematic of FIG. 3A). FIG. 7B also is anexploded cross sectional view further illustrates a cladding unit cellof the square lattice and also shows pitch Λ, hole size D, node size d₁and web or strut width d₂. When compared to the cane 500 of FIGS. 5A and5B, the web or strut width has been reduced substantially, and as willbe shown by example below, at least as a result of the differentialpressure applied to the core and cladding. In various embodiments,fibers 300 may have D/Λ=0.9-0.995, d₂/Λ=0.01-0.1, and d₁/Λ=0.1-0.5.

In various embodiments a polarization maintaining (PM) HC SQL PBGF fibermay also be fabricated with a modified preform. A perfect SQL PBGF hasfour-fold rotational symmetry and will not be birefringent, andtherefore not polarization-maintaining.

In some implementations, to make a PM HC SQL PBGF the symmetry can bereduced to two-fold rotational symmetry by a technique illustrated inFIG. 8A. Two flats 801 are ground on either sides of a portion of acircular preform 800. The orientation of the flats is not critical.However, a possible orientation is along the orientation of webs orstruts and at 45 degree angle to the orientation of webs or struts sothat elongation of nodes can be increased. In some embodiments the flatsmay be oriented at other angles relative to the principal directions ofthe rectangular lattice. In various embodiments, when the preform isdrawn, the surface tension will force the fiber outer dimension towardsa circular shape. As a result, deformation of both the cladding and coreof the PBGF occurs.

As illustrated in FIG. 8B, the fiber shape 803 is then transformed intoan approximate elliptical shape with a non-circular core. The shape ofthe holes may also be altered, but has relatively little effect on PMand guidance. Thus, birefringence is introduced and the fiber becomespolarization maintaining. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 8A and8B, 16 excluded holes were used to form the fiber core, Also, FIG. 8Billustrates a circular outer diameter of the fiber, however, in variousembodiments an elliptical shaped outer diameter may also result.

Although illustrated with a HC SQL PBGF herein, such a PM fiberfabricating technique can be adapted for construction of other PM PBGFs,and implemented for other lattice designs, such as, e.g., hexagonallattice designs, for example the designs disclosed in the '619 patent.

Example I Fabricated HC PBG with Rectangular Lattice

In the example described below, a HC SQL PBGF was fabricated with fiberouter diameter of 125 μm. FIG. 9A illustrates an image of a fabricatedpreform 900. Features 901-905 of fabricated preform 900 correspond with501-507 of cane 500, and eventually with 301-307 of fiber 300. FIG. 9Billustrates an exploded region of a portion of the image of FIG. 9A andshows a unit cell of preform 900. FIG. 9C is a scanning electronmicroscope (SEM) image illustrating a cross-sectional view of afabricated SQL PBGF drawn using the preform of FIG. 9A. Theirregularities in FIG. 9C are believed to be by-products of the cleavingprocess for preparing fiber end for the photos, and not defects in thePBG fiber structure. Air-filling fraction is estimated to be larger than83% in this example. FIG. 9D is a SEM image illustrating an explodedview of the fiber illustrated in FIG. 9C, and illustrates the claddingstructure of the fabricated fiber. As illustrated in the example of FIG.9D, web or strut width d₂ may estimated to be about 100 nm or less,giving d₂/Λ<approximately 0.03 (implying D/Λ>approximately 0.97).Pressurization steps appear to significantly reduce the web width, asillustrated by FIGS. 9C and 9D. Another fiber (not shown) was alsofabricated with an outer diameter of 118 μm, core diameter of 14.2 μm,pitch Λ of 2.2 μm, and node size d₁ of 0.55 μm, giving d₁/Λ=0.25.

Transmission of the fabricated fiber was measured, and the results areillustrated in the plot of FIG. 10. FIG. 10 shows two curves 1001 and1002 of the loss exhibited by the fibers over a range of wavelengths.The loss values for curve 1001 are plotted on the right hand side axiswhile the loss values for the curve 1002 are plotted on the left handside axis. To obtain the first measurement shown in curve 1001 a fiberof length 100 m was used and then cut back to approximately 3.5 m. Toobtain the second measurement plotted in curve 1002 a fiber of length3.5 m was measured and then cut back to approximately 1.25 m.

The second measurement reveals the cladding bandgap characterized by theshort wavelength band edge 1003 and long wavelength band edge 1004. Thetransmission window (bandwidth Δλ) is characterized by the wavelengthspan between the two steep rising band edges as shown. As a result ofthe thicker core and cladding boundary used in this example, a number ofsurface modes are supported. Guided core mode coupling to these surfacemodes leads to high loss at certain wavelengths at which phase matchingof the two modes occurs. Some strong loss peaks due to surface modecoupling is indicated by the peaks 1005. These loss peaks significantlyreduce transmission window for long fibers. Loss due to surface modescan be reduced by using a thinner core cladding boundary as disclosed inU.S. Pat. Nos. 7,209,619 and 7,418,836, which are incorporated herein byreference in their entireties. The minimum loss measured in the firstmeasurement as seen from FIG. 10 is approximately 85 dB/km.

In another example, a fiber with similar cross section, minimum loss of70 dB/km was measured in a fiber with 5 rings/layers of air holes. Therelative bandwidth Λλ/λ_(c) was estimated to be approximately 45%.

Without being limited to or requiring any particular theory orexplanation, it is believed that the use of rods 558 in the interstitialholes in the stack 550, in combination with core/claddingpressurization, reduces or minimizes web thickness, while limitingchanges in the node size. The transmission bandwidth is furtherextended, with low transmission loss. The narrow widths d₂ of the webscan be appreciated from examination of the SEM image of FIG. 9D, whichshows a dimension well below 1 μm, and approaching about 100 nm. A nodedimension d₁ is about 0.5 μm.

Various embodiments of SQL fibers were fabricated using the fabricationtechniques described herein. A summary of various parameters of the SQLfibers fabricated is provided in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1 Summary of parameters for various embodiments of photonicbandgap fibers with square lattice. Fiber Cladding diameter Corediameter Pitch Λ Node Size (d₁) No. (μm) (μm) (μm) (μm) 1 140 17.0 2.40.68 2 139 15.0 2.4 0.67 3 132 14.8 2.2 0.59 4 134 14.0 2.5 0.60 5 13613.7 2.9 0.59 6 118 14.2 2.2 0.55 7 124 17.3 3.0 0.57 8 103 13.4-14.62.3 0.54

The effect of cladding pressure on transmission of the variousembodiments of photonic bandgap fibers with square lattice was studiedby keeping all other drawing parameters constant in one embodiment of afabrication technique. The effect on transmission in example fibersfabricated using different cladding pressures is shown in FIG. 10A. InFIG. 10A, the cladding pressure increases from Fiber 2 to Fiber 5. Someeffects of an increase of cladding pressure in this example are thinnerstruts and smaller strut-to-node ratio. This has the apparent effect ofextending longer wavelength (lower V value) boundary of the bandgap asshown in FIG. 10A, indicating a reduction in coupling among adjacentnodes for these example fibers.

The transmission at shorter wavelength (high V value) boundary ofbandgap can also be extended, as a result of the reduction of strutsize, in these examples. Some surface mode coupling can be observed nearboth ends of the bandgap. Without subscribing to or requiring anyparticular theory, this could be a result of the thick core boundarythat is present in some of these fiber embodiments.

A transmission window from about 1050 nm to about 1650 nm, 600 nm inwidth, and a relative bandgap of 44%, were demonstrated in a fiberhaving the parameters of Fiber 6 listed in Table 1. The dependence oftransmitted power and loss for Fiber 6 listed in Table 1 on wavelengthare shown in FIG. 10B. In various embodiments, the relative bandgap canbe equal to the ratio of the transmission window and the centerwavelength of the transmission window. The transmitted power over 3.5 mof Fiber 6 is shown by curve 1010 while the loss in Fiber 6 is shown bycurve 1012 in FIG. 10B. In various fabrication methods, cladding and/orcore pressures can be adjusted or optimized to yield fiber embodimentshaving various desired properties. The parameters for Fiber 6 from Table1 are as follows: Λ=2.2 μm and d₁=0.55 μm for this fiber. Thus,d₁/Λ=0.25 for Fiber 6. Using d₁/Λ=0.25 and a relative bandgap of 44%, itcan be estimated from FIG. 12 that the corresponding relative strutratio d₂/d₁ is approximately ˜0.06, resulting in a value for d₂ beingapproximately 33 nm.

FIG. 10C illustrates the variation of loss and transmitted power for afiber having the parameters of Fiber 7 listed in Table 1 and the lossfor a fiber having the parameters of Fiber 8 listed in Table 1 withrespect to wavelength. The transmission was measured with cut-backmethod over 100 m fiber. The observed transmission is much lower thanthe calculated transmission probably due to additional loss mechanisms,e.g., possibly from surface mode coupling. With further elimination ofsurface mode coupling by a thinner core boundary, a much widertransmission window over long length of fiber is possible. Effect offiber scaling is shown in FIG. 10C, along with mode (inset of FIG. 10C)measured at 1.5 μm at the end of a 3.5 m length of Fiber 7. FIG. 10Cshows well confined core mode this far from loss minimum.

SQL PBGF Simulation Example—Parameters Influencing Relative Bandgap

PBG fiber designs may be studied using various computational models toestimate photonic states of the structure. Some models are based onnumerical solutions of Maxwell's equations to determine photonic bandsand bandgaps, in a manner similar to solving the Schrodinger waveequation to determine bands and electronics bandgaps in solid statephysics.

In the last few years, studies of photonic bandgap fibers (PBGFs) haveimproved understanding of the guidance properties of photonic bandgapfibers. Without subscribing to or requiring any particular theory orunderstanding, several studies will be described. For example, somestudies indicate that in various embodiments of PBGFs, guidanceproperties of PBGFs can originate from photonic bandgaps of the claddinglattice, an effect that is analogous to the observed guidance propertiesof anti-resonance reflecting optical waveguide (ARROW). As anotherexample, some studies indicate that various embodiments of a photonicbandgap can be considered as an anti-resonance of the collectivecladding lattice. An optical field within such a photonic bandgap isrepelled from the nodes as a result of the anti-resonance, which resultsin confinement of the defect modes in the center of the claddinglattice. As yet another example, some studies indicate that the natureof the nodes, primarily determines guidance property of the fiber.However, in some embodiments of the PBGFs, the guidance property of thefiber the position of the nodes can have an effect in determining thephotonic bandgaps. In various embodiments of the PBGFs, the defect modesare not guided modes as those in conventional optical fibers with theireffective index between indexes of the core and cladding. The defectmodes can be leaky modes with an effective mode index below that of thebackground, corresponding with the lowest material refractive index ofthe fiber. In some embodiments, the defect modes can be lossy at cut-offfrequencies of modes in the cladding lattice of nodes.

Several numerical approaches to identify the photonic bandgaps in PBGFshave been described. For example, in one numerical approach, therelevant modes of the cladding lattice are identified and characterized.Photonic bandgaps can be described and/or identified by the regionswhere cladding modes are absent. As an example, for air-core photonicbandgap fibers, a mode solver capable of finding mode solutions for aunit cell with appropriate boundary conditions can be used to identifythe cladding modes. Subsequently, the cladding mode density can becalculated and plotted to define photonic bandgaps. In variousembodiments, it may not be required to find all the cladding modes,instead it may be possible to determine a certain sufficient number ofmodes to define the boundaries of the bands of modes in the claddinglattice.

As an example, in a recent study a simple cladding lattice of circularhigh index nodes placed hexagonally in a uniform background glass wasmodeled. A further approximation was obtained by using a circularboundary for the hexagonal unit cell boundary. The study observed thateach mode of the original node in isolation broadens to a band of modesin a lattice of infinite nodes and the bandwidth of each band at anyfixed frequency increases with a decrease of optical frequency.Furthermore, the study pointed out the conditions for the upper andlower boundary of each band is characterized by bonded states betweenadjacent nodes. Such states have the same phase across a cell boundary,and a derivative of the transverse field going to zero at the boundary).Additionally, the study indicated existence of anti-bonded statescorresponding to a π phase across cell boundary, with the transversefield vanishing at the boundary.

Another study disclosed a computational approach of intermediatecomplexity to estimate the band structure of a hexagonal lattice PBGF. Aunit cell of the PBGF contained a high index rod surrounded by a lowerindex region. A circular symmetric approximation to the hexagonal cellprovided a sufficient approximation for estimation of the bandstructure. The results obtained by the computational approachcorresponded closely with calculations using an exact numerical method.The technique was extendable to more general radial index distributions,for example gradient index distributions. Thus, considerable informationand guidance regarding PBGFs designs may be obtained from simplifiedcomputational models.

Simulations performed for various embodiments of SQL PBGFs are describedherein to provide guidance for wideband SQL PBGF designs. Ofconsiderable interest are factors which distinguish the guidanceproperties and bandgap structures of SQL PBGFs relative to those ofhexagonal lattice PBGFs.

A computational model using commercial COMSOL, Inc. (Burlington, Mass.)finite element analysis software was developed to simulate and estimatethe waveguide cladding modes. In one embodiment, appropriate boundaryconditions of perfect electric conductor (PEC) or perfect magneticconductor (PMC) were used. In one embodiment, simulations were performedassuming homogeneous and isotopic medium of the SQL PBGF while otherparameters of the simulation were unconstrained. For example, in someembodiments, for computational purposes it was assumed that the mediummay be both non-linear and dispersive. In one embodiment of thesimulation, for each mode appropriate boundary conditions are appliedand the effective modal index is computed. For example, certain modesmay have transverse amplitude profiles which are both continuous at theinterface, and have a vanishing derivative. With the use of COMSOL,vector solutions may be obtained in both 2D and 3D, and without theconstraints associated with the scalar field. The solutions provided bythe model lead to bandgap diagrams identifying forbidden states and/orallowed cladding modes.

As to conformance of the model to a fabricated structure, it has beenrecognized that band structures can be computed and show agreement withexperimental results for photonic crystals as shown in another recentstudy.

In general to determine the bandgap, it may be sufficient to find theupper and lower band boundaries. In the case of square lattice, themodes defining the upper and lower boundaries can have fieldorientations either perpendicular or parallel to the unit cell boundary,although this property of the modes is not necessarily true near thenodes for these modes. For example, such deviation can be seen in theinsets of FIG. 11A for the two modes in the fundamental mode band. Toidentify and/or determine these modes a numerical approach can be usedsuch as, e.g., a Finite Element Method (FEM) mode solver from COMSOL,Inc. (Burlington, Mass.). For example, in one approach if the boundaryconditions and other characteristics of the modes that need to beidentified and/or determined are known then using perfect electricconductor (PEC) at one parallel pair of the cell boundaries and perfectmagnetic conductor (PMC) at the other pair of parallel cell boundariescan account for all the cases where the field orientation is eitherperpendicular or parallel to the cell boundaries.

FIG. 11A is a plot showing calculated mode density and bandgap regionsfor an embodiment of a square lattice, photonic band gap fiber (SQLPBGF) with Λ=5 μm, d₁=750 nm and d₂=37.5 nm. In this example therelative node size d₁/Λ is approximately 0.15 and the relative strutratio d₂/d₁ is approximately 0.05. FIG. 11B illustrates an expanded viewof the corresponding mode profiles. The states of SQL PBGF modes can beestimated for effective index values as shown. However, the bandgapstructure identifying forbidden states and the corresponding gap edgesare of significant interest, and correspond to “gap maps” as discussedprior studies. In carrying out the computations, a-priori information ofmodal properties can be used to reduce computation time so as toidentify specific regions of interest.

By way of example, and referring back to FIG. 11A, the horizontal axisis the normalized frequency of the node or the fiber V parameter and iscalculated by the equation V=2πd₁(n_(h) ²−n_(l) ²)^(1/2)/λ where n_(h)and n_(l) are refractive index of the node/web and hole respectively.Using the normalized frequency of the node as the horizontal axis may beadvantageous in those embodiments where node guidance plays asignificant role in determining the band diagram. In variousembodiments, n_(h) can be the similar to the refractive index of silicawhile n₁ is similar to the refractive index of air. The vertical axisrepresents the estimated effective mode index using the finite elementmodel described above. A region 1101 of high mode density is shown,whereas 1102 is representative of the bandgap where propagating wavesare forbidden.

In this example, n_(h)=1.445 for silica and n₁=1 for are air holes. Whenthe effective mode index n_(eff)>1, modes are increasingly confined tothe nodes, forming well defined narrow bands 1104, 1105, 1106, 1107 and1108. The intensity distribution of these modes at n_(eff) approximatelyequal to 1.05 is illustrated in 1111, 1112, 1113, 1114 and 1115. Theband 1104 is formed by the fundamental mode of the nodes, the modehaving the highest effective index, guided in the nodes while bands1105, 1106, 1107 and 1108 are formed by the higher order modes guided inthe nodes. Each band widens as V decreases due to the increasingcoupling between adjacent nodes.

With a HC PBGF, the guided modes in the core have an effective indexclose to the air line indicated by 1103 with n_(eff)=1. The lowerboundary of the bandgap 1109, as indicates by A, occurs at V=V_(A) wherethe first band intersects the air line. The upper boundary of thebandgap 1110, indicated by B, occurs at V=V_(B) where the second bandintersects the air line. The photonic bandgap is between points A and Bfor this lattice and a relative bandgap size is given by2(V_(B)−V_(A))/(V_(A)+V_(B)). Mode intensity distribution at A and B areillustrated by 1116 and 1117 respectively. With detailed examination, itcan be seen that the intensity distribution of mode at lower boundary Ahas reduced peak intensity and a broader central lobe, and is weaklyconfined at the node. The mode at the upper boundary B is mostly guidedin the web. Without subscribing to or requiring any particular theory,the defect modes guided in the core typically have an effective modeindex close to the air line. In this example, this is may be true forcore diameters that are greater than the wavelength of light.

For some air-core photonic bandgap fibers (PBGFs), the existence of thestruts in addition to nodes can create additional modes supported by thenetwork of struts. As a consequence of the struts, the weaker higherorder bandgaps that may exist in a lattice of just nodes may disappear.Referring to the example shown in FIG. 11A, the first band of modes atthe lower V value can be derived from the fundamental mode of eachisolated node. In various embodiments, this band can move towards lowerindex and widen at smaller V value. One of the possible reasons for thiseffect could be that these modes generally become less confined to thenodes at smaller V values. The reduction in confinement can also lead tostronger coupling among adjacent nodes and consequently widen this bandof modes. An example of a mode at the high V value end of this band isillustrated in the top-left inset 1111 of FIG. 11A. The lower boundaryof the bandgap, in particular point A, is determined by the lowerboundary of this first band of modes (the mode at point A is also shownin the inset 1116 of FIG. 11A). The upper boundary of the bandgap inthis air-core photonic bandgap fiber, point B, is no longer determinedby the upper boundary of the second band of modes as in a lattice ofjust nodes without struts, but determined by the modes mostly confinedto the network of struts (for example, see the inset 1117 of FIG. 11A).Also illustrated are examples of four modes 1112-1115 from the groupcomprising four bands of modes. In some all-solid photonic bandgap fiberwith weak guidance where scalar model applies, these four bands of modescan converge into a single band of modes, which can be viewed asderivatives of the LP11 mode of each isolated node.

To increase and/or maximize photonic bandgaps in embodiments of air-corephotonic bandgap fibers, it can be advantageous to move point A towardslower V value and point B towards higher V value. In some embodiments, areduction of coupling between nodes can effectively reduce the width ofthe 1^(st) band of modes and consequently move A towards lower V. Apossible approach to move point A towards lower V can be to increase thenode separation Λ, corresponding to a reduction of relative node sized₁/Λ. A possible approach to move B towards higher V value can be toreduce the effective mode indices of modes confined to the network ofstruts so that their guidance can be weakened. This effect can also beachieved by, for example, a reduction of relative strut width d₂/Λ.Other approaches are possible.

Without subscribing to or requiring any particular theory, the resultsprovide guidance for obtaining an increase in the relative bandgap incertain embodiments. The relative bandgap may be increased by increasingV_(B) and reducing V_(A). Since upper boundary B is limited by web modesa reduction of web dimension d₂ should increase V_(B). In the limit ofd₂→0, web modes vanish and V_(B) is limited by the second mode guided inthe node. On the other hand, V_(A) is limited by the coupling amongadjacent modes which broadens the first band. A reduction of thiscoupling would narrow the bands and lowers V_(A). This can be achievedby increasing the distance between nodes, i.e. a lower d₁/Λ.

FIG. 11B illustrates an expanded view of the mode profiles 1111-1117shown in the inset of FIG. 11A. The orientation of the fields in themode profiles is indicated by the direction of the arrows.

Since photonic bandgaps can be identified and/or determined by the modesof lattice of nodes in the cladding, it maybe helpful to understand thenature of these modes. To visualize the origin of modes in a photonicbandgap fiber, consider a single node of high index in a uniformbackground glass, which corresponds to a conventional optical fiber.This waveguide can support a number of modes dependent on a normalizedfrequency defined by V=(2π/λ)ρNA, where ρ is node radius; NA=(n_(n)²−n_(B) ²)^(1/2) is numerical aperture; n_(n), is node index; n_(B) isbackground index; and λ is operating optical wavelength. In one examplefor understanding the nodes in the lattice of a PBGF, consider only thefundamental mode of a single node and add more nodes, one at a time. Forexample, consider the example calculations illustrated in FIG. 11C foran embodiment of a square lattice.

In FIG. 11C, the vertical axis represents effective mode index and thehorizontal axis the number of nodes for an embodiment of a SQL PBGF. Thearrangements of the nodes are shown at the top of FIG. 11C for eachcase. The intensity distributions of each mode and its degeneracy (ornear degeneracy) are illustrated next to the data point representing theeffective mode index. Resultant field orientations for some modes arealso illustrated. The total number of modes for each case, i.e.summation of all modes including degenerate modes, is shown at the topof the FIG. 11C. It is observed in the examples shown in FIG. 11C thatthe fundamental modes of each node transform into global modes of thelattice when additional nodes are added. Without subscribing to orrequiring any particular theory, in general, the total number of modesderived from the fundamental modes in the finite lattice is equal to twotimes the number of nodes, i.e., the same as the total number offundamental modes when all the nodes are in isolation. In an embodimentof a PBGF wherein the lattice has infinite nodes, there can be aninfinite number modes derived from the fundamental modes of each node inisolation. The upper and lower boundaries of the band formed by themodes are illustrated by the solid lines in FIG. 11C. In this example,the band widens quickly at smaller number of nodes, with a reduced rateof change observed as the number of nodes increases.

With reference to the examples shown in FIG. 11C, the mode defining theupper boundary of the band is the mode with constant phase across theunit cell boundary. This mode has a minimum intensity at the cellboundary and the field at each node is most strongly coupled to that ofthe adjacent node, analogous to the bonded states of electrons.Furthermore, analogous to electrons where the strong bonded state lowersthe total energy and is more stable, this in-phase optical mode has thehighest effective mode index among all modes derived from thefundamental modes, and is most strongly guided in this example.

Conversely, in this example the mode defining the lower boundary of theband is the mode with π phase jump across the cell boundary. This modehas zero intensity at the cell boundary and the field at each node ismost weakly coupled to that of the adjacent nodes, analogous toanti-bonded state of electrons. Furthermore, analogous to electronswhere the anti-bonded state raises total energy and is unstable, theanti-phase optical mode has the lowest effective mode index among theband of modes and is least guided in this example. These generalcharacteristics of band formation of modes in an embodiment of a latticecan also be applied to higher order modes in this embodiment, where theymay form separate bands.

In some photonic bandgap fibers with low refractive index contrast, suchas all-solid photonic bandgap fibers, where scalar approximation issufficient, the modes defining the upper and lower boundaries of eachband are also linearly polarized while the other modes in the band arenot necessarily so. An example of this is illustrated in FIG. 11C forthe modes of the four-node arrangement in an example of a squarelattice. For the other arrangements shown in FIG. 11C, the resultantfield orientations of modes defining upper and lower band boundaries arealso illustrated to show the linearly polarized fields in the cases withlow refractive index contrast. These linearly polarized conditions maynot apply to air-core photonic bandgap fibers of high refractive indexcontrast where vector mode solvers can be used. Without subscribing toor requiring any specific theory, in general, field orientations canstrongly deviate from being linear especially at the glass and airinterface around each node in this example.

FIG. 11D(a) illustrates an embodiment of an all-solid photonic bandgapfiber with hexagonal cladding lattice. The first three modes for such afiber are illustrated in FIGS. 11D(b)-11D(d) respectively. Withoutsubscribing to or requiring any particular theory, Applicants believethat FIGS. 11D(a)-11D(d) illustrate that the defect modes in the core ofa photonic bandgap fiber are guided by anti-resonant conditions of thenodes in the cladding lattice. It can be also observed from FIGS.11D(b)-11D(d) that the electromagnetic field intensity around the nodesis approximately zero for the defect modes which demonstrate that thenodes repel the optical field as a result of the anti-resonance whichresults in the confinement of the defect modes. The horizontal and thevertical axes in FIG. 11D(b) extend from −60 μm to 60 μm with tick marksat every 10 μm. The horizontal and vertical axes in FIGS. 11D(c) and11D(d) extend from −60 μm to 60 μm with tick marks at every 20 μm.

The dependence of relative bandgap size on relative strut ratio d₂/d₁ isalso studied for a wide range of relative node size d₁/Λ between 0.05and 0.4 for an embodiment of PBGF. FIG. 12 illustrates that relativebandgap can be increased at smaller values of the relative strut ratiod₂/d₁ for any relative node size d₁/Λ between 0.05 and 0.4. It can beseen from FIG. 12 that the dependence of the relative bandgap on therelative node size d₁/Λ is only significant at small values of therelative strut ratio d₂/d₁. It is also observed from FIG. 12, thatoctave spanning bandgap, e.g., relative bandgap of 0.67, can be achievedin certain examples of PBGFs having sufficiently small d₂/d₁ and d₁/Λ.Thus, it can be inferred that to obtain wide bandgaps in someembodiments of air-core photonic bandgap fibers, the relative strutratio d₂/d₁ and the relative node size d₁/Λ can be reduced. In somefabrication methods, relative node size d₁/Λ can be adjusted bypressurizing the cladding holes during fiber drawing.

FIG. 13 illustrates the results of a simulation showing dependence ofV_(A), V_(B) and relative bandgap on relative node size d₁/Λ ford₂/Λ=0.05 for an embodiment of a PBGF. As the lower boundary V_(A) islimited by the coupling between the node modes of the first band 1104,it is expected to decrease with a decrease of the relative node sized₁/Λ, the decrease corresponding to an increase of separation Λ. This isindeed the case as shown in the FIG. 13. A reduction in the relativenode size d₁/Λ, implies a longer web which has a weak effect on V_(B)when d₁/Λ>0.15 as shown in FIG. 13. At larger d₁/Λ, the reduction inV_(A) dominates and this leads to an increase of relative bandgap with areduction of d₁/Λ. At small d₁/Λ, the reduction in V_(B) starts todominate and leads to a reduction of relative bandgap with a reductionof d₁/Λ. The reduction V_(B) at small d₁/Λ could be possibly due to anincrease in the confinement of strut modes as a sequence of thesignificantly increased strut length in this PBGF embodiment. Ford₂/d₁=0.05, the combined effects lead to a maximum relative bandgap atd₁/Λ approximately equal to 0.15.

FIG. 14 illustrates the dependence of relative bandgap on d₁/Λ forvarious values of d₂/Λ from 0 to 0.15. The relative bandgap generallyhas a maximum and this maximum moves towards smaller d₁/Λ with areduction of d₂/Λ. When there is no web or strut, i.e. (d₂/Λ=0), thelargest relative bandgap, which continues to increase as d₁/Λ decreases.It is also observed that in this example calculation, the relativebandgap in general reduces quickly with an increase of relative strutwidth d₂/Λ having the largest value for a fiber without any struts.

In some fabrication methods, circular capillaries with outer diameter Λand inner diameter D are stacked with interstitial holes filled withrods to make the cladding lattice. A comparison of examples of fibershaving triangular lattice and examples of fibers having a square latticeare shown in FIG. 15. The geometry of the cross-section of an example ofa fiber having a triangular lattice and an example of a fiber having asquare lattice are shown in the insets of FIG. 15. FIG. 15 illustratesthe relative node size d₁/Λ (right vertical axis) and the relative strutratio d₂/d₁ (left vertical axis) for triangular and square latticeplotted versus 1−D/Λ (horizontal axis), where D is inner diameter of thetubes used in the stack.

With reference to the examples shown in FIG. 15, the relative strutratio and relative node size may be limited by the geometricalconstraints of the lattice. The dependence of d₂/d₁ and d₁/Λ arecalculated for these examples for various relative capillary wallthickness 1−D/Λ in FIG. 15. It can be seen from FIG. 15 that a muchsmaller d₂/d₁ is possible with a square lattice in this example. Forexample, it is observed from FIG. 15 that values of d₂/d₁ as low as 0.1are possible in some fibers with a square lattice. Larger node andthinner webs or struts can be simultaneously achieved with a squarelattice. This structure allows embodiments of a square lattice toachieve much wider bandgaps than possible with embodiments of atriangular or hexagonal lattice. In some fabrication methods, therelative wall thickness can be greater than about 0.05 so as to avoidthe difficulty associated with the handling of capillaries with thinwalls. Pressurization of cladding holes can be used to further expandthe holes during fiber draw process. This can have an additional effectof reducing web or strut width as compared to the node size in somefabrication methods, leading to further reduction of d₂/d₁ which canlead to further reduction of web size and can also be used to reducenode size for increasing or maximizing the relative bandgap. In somefabrication methods, d₂/d₁<0.05 may be possible with a square lattice.

The model was calculated with an assumption of an infinite latticewithout defects, and without a central core. Introducing a core may beequivalent to a perturbation which in turn affects the cladding modes.Guided modes in the core may be of interest. As discussed above, guidedcore modes can have an effective index close to the airline 1103. To theextent that the presence of the defect in the cladding may result inadditional cladding modes, such modes will be trapped in the cladding.Thus, the approximation provided with the simulation (or computationalapproach described above) could be sufficient for design and applicationof embodiments of the wide-bandwidth low loss, SQL PBGF.

Various Embodiments, Features, and Example Applications

Many variations and implementations of large bandwidth PBGFs arepossible. A wide variety of alternative configurations are alsopossible. For example, components (e.g., layers) may be added, removed,or rearranged. Similarly, processing and method steps may be added,removed, or reordered. PGBF's may have a hollow core (HC). PBGF's may bepolarization maintaining (PM). PBGFs may have, for example, a latticestructure that can be periodic or non-periodic. The lattice structuremay be rectangular or may be square. Hole sizes may be nearly uniform ormay vary, for example with increasing hole size with radial distance.Hole shapes may vary, and may comprise a hole boundary having linear andcurved portions. Holes may be regularly spaced, or irregularly spaced,for example randomly distributed. In various embodiments, the claddingglass may comprise silica. In various embodiments, a fiber diameter maybe in a range from about 125 μm to about 400 μm and the core diametermay be in a range from about 10 μm to about 100 μm. In variousembodiments, an air-filling fraction may be at least about 80% and up toabout 95%. In various embodiments, a minimum transmission loss may be ina range from about 70 dB/km to about 0.1 dB/km. In various embodiments,a SQL PBGF may have a minimum loss in a range from about 70 dB/km toabout 0.1 dB/km, with 2-10 layers of air holes, or with 2-5 layers ofair holes. In various embodiments a web width may be less than about 200nm, or in a range from about 50 nm to about 200 nm. An aspect ratio,corresponding to a length to width ratio d₃/d₂, of the webs may be in arange from about 5:1 up to about 40:1.

One example of a HC PBGF may have d₁/Λ=0.15 and d₂/d₁=0.05, resulting ina relative bandgap of about 56%. This fiber can be achieved by firstsquare-stacking a preform and then pressurizing the cladding duringdrawing to further expand the air portion of the preform as set forthabove.

In a second example, a HC PBGF may have d₁/Λ=0.1 and d₂/d₁=0.02,resulting in a fiber with a relative bandgap of ˜65%.

In various embodiments of a HC SQL PGBF a relative bandgap may exceedabout 50%, and may be in the range from about 35%-80% or about 50% to80%.

In various embodiments d₂/d₁ may be in a range from about 0.01 to about0.1, and d₁/Λ in a range from about 0.05 to about 0.3.

In various embodiments with d₂/d₁ may be less than about 0.1, and thePBGF may be configured such that a relative wavelength transmissionwindow Δλ/λ_(c) is larger than about 0.35

In various embodiments d₂/d₁ maybe in a range from about 0.01 to about0.1, and d₁/Λ in a range from about 0.05 to about 0.3. In variousembodiments Δλ/λ_(c) may be in the range from about 0.35 to about 0.85.In various embodiments the rectangular lattice may comprise 2 to 5layers of cladding material.

The photonic bandgap fibers described herein can be incorporated innumerous applications. For example, FIG. 16 is a block diagramschematically illustrating a single span telecommunication systemincorporating a PBGF 1605 (e.g. a HC SQL PBGF, or other fibers describedherein). Signals from transmitters 1601 are multiplexed by a multiplexer1602 and are then pre-compensated by a dispersion pre-compensation unit1603 and amplified by an amplifier 1604. A single span of PBGF 1605 isused for transmitting the signals over a distance from source todestination. The transmitted signals are then amplified at thedestination by an amplifier 1106. A dispersion compensation unit 1607 isused before the de-multiplexer 1608. Each signal is finely compensatedby post-compensation unit 1609 to take out any channel dependenttransmission distortion before receipt by a plurality of receivers 1610.

FIG. 17 illustrates a similar transmission system that also includestransmitters 1701, a multiplexer 1702, a pre-compensation unit 1703 andan amplifier 1704 on the source end and a demultiplexer 1712, aplurality of post-compensation units 1713 and receivers 1714 on thedestination end. In the system shown in FIG. 17, however, multiple spansof PBGF 1705, 1707, 1709 are included. In various embodiments, the PBGFs1705, 1707 and 1709 can comprise HC SQL PBGFs or other fibers describedherein. Additional dispersion compensation units and amplifiers 1706,1708, and 1710 in each span are also included. Optical connection isprovided between the optical components as shown in FIGS. 16 and 17,although structures may be included between these optical components aswell. A variety of these components may comprise optical fibers. FIGS.16 and 17 only show the key components of a telecommunication system.Additional components can be added. Likewise, some components in FIGS.16 and 17 can be omitted and/or locations changed in differentembodiments. Other configurations and variations are also possible.

PBGFs can also be employed in systems for generating optical pulses suchas ultrafast optical pulses. Additional details regarding ultrafastpulse systems is included in U.S. Pat. No. 7,190,705, entitled “PulsedLaser Sources” and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/814,319 entitled“High Power Short Pulse Fiber Laser”, published as U.S. PatentPublication No. 2005/0226278, each of which is hereby incorporated byreference herein in its entirety.

FIG. 18A, for example, illustrates a fiber chirped pulse amplification(FCPA) system incorporating a dispersion tailored PBGF 1806 (e.g. a HCSQL PBGF, or other fibers described herein). Pulses from oscillator 1801are pre-chirped by using a pre-chirp unit 1802 and are then amplified bya pre-amplifier 1803. Pulse picker 1804 can be used to pick a subset ofpulses, which are then amplified by main amplifier 1805. The PBGF 1806is used to compress the amplified pulses, which are subsequentlydelivered by a low dispersion PBGF delivery fiber 1807. Opticalconnection is provided between the optical components as shown in FIG.18A although structures may be included between these optical componentsas well. A variety of these components may comprise optical fiber oroptical fiber devices. FIG. 18B, also shows a fiber pulse amplificationsystem comprising an oscillator 1810, a pre-chirp unit 1811, apreamplifier 1812, a pulse picker 1813, and a main amplifier 1814. InFIG. 18B, however, the PBGF compressor and delivery fiber are combinedinto a single fiber 1815. In various embodiments, the combined fiber1815 can comprise a HC SQL PBGF, or other fibers described herein. FIGS.18A and 18B only show the key components of a pulse amplificationsystem. Additional components can be added. Likewise, some components inFIGS. 18A and 18B can be omitted and/or locations changed in differentembodiments. Other configurations and variations are also possible.

A PBGF (e.g. a HC SQL PBGF or other fibers described herein) with lowloss and a wide transmission band can also be used for trace gasanalysis with much improved sensitivity due to the long interactionlength. FIG. 19A illustrates such a system that detects, identifies,quantifies, or otherwise performs measurements on gases based onspectral absorption. A tunable source 1901 is optically coupled to aPBGF 1904 through a multiplexer 1902, which allows gas to be injectedinto the core of the PBGF 1904. A gas filter 1903 may be employed totake out solid particles in the gas stream. At the output end, ade-multiplexer 1905 is used to separate gas and the optical beam. Theoptical beam is then directed to a detector 1907. Gas pumps can beconnected to gas filter 1903 and/or gas outlet 1906 to speed up gasflow.

FIG. 19B illustrates a configuration of the multiplexer 1902 comprisinga sealed chamber 1915. Source light propagated by a fiber 1910 iscollimated by a collimating lens 1912 and focused by lens 1913 into aninput end 1911 of the PBGF 1904. Gas is input through a gas input 1914which may comprise a filter as described above. The de-multiplexer 1905is illustrated in FIG. 19C. The de-multiplexer also comprises a chamber1918, an output end 1920 of the PBG fiber 1904 as well as a collimatinglens 1922 and a focusing lens 1923 which receives the light output fromthe output 1920 of the PBGF 1904 and couples the light into an outputfiber 1921. The demultiplexer 1905 further comprises a gas output port1924. In various embodiments, a broad band source and a monochromatorcan be used instead of the tunable light source 1901 in FIG. 19A.

In such a system gas is introduced into the multiplexer and enters intoportions of the PBGF though holes or openings therein. In variousembodiments, the core is hollow and the gas enters the hollow core. Thegas affects the propagation of the light, for example, by attenuatingthe light due to absorption at one or more wavelengths. The absorptionspectrum of the gas can, therefore, be measured using the detector 2008and monochromator or tunable filter 2007. In certain embodiments such asshown in FIGS. 19A-19C the gas is flowed through the PBGF 1904. In suchcases, the long length of the fiber 1904 may increase the interaction ofthe gas with the light and provide a higher signal. In otherembodiments, other properties of the light may be measured.

FIG. 20A, for example, illustrates a trace gas detection system based ondetection of Raman scattered light. The gas is introduced into the fiberand causes Raman scattering which is measured. The gas may enteropenings in the fiber and may, in certain embodiments, flow through thehollow core of the PBGF. As described above, the long interaction lengthof the PBGF provides increased detection sensitivity. An additionaladvantage is that a large part of the Raman-scattered light is collectedand can also propagate within the photonic bandgap fiber. This featureis especially true for PBGF with a wide transmission band, i.e. largersolid collection angle.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 20A, a Raman pump 2001 is opticallycoupled through a multiplexer 2002 to a PBGF 2004. An output end of thePBGF 2004 is optically coupled to a de-multiplexer unit 2005. Gas entersthrough a filter 2003 that removes solid particles. Gas exits throughthe outlet 2006 on the de-multiplexer. Pumps can be used at the inlet2003 and the outlet 2006 to speed up gas flow. Back-propagatingscattered light by Raman scattering is directed towards a tunable filteror a monochromator 2007 and onto the detector 2008. The tunable filteror monochomator 2007 and detector 2008 can measure the wavelengthspectrum of the scattered light.

The multiplexer 2002 comprising a sealed chamber 2010A is illustrated inFIG. 20B. Pump light is carried in by an optical fiber 2010 opticallycoupled to the pump source 2001 and is then collimated by a collimatinglens 2013. The collimated pump beam 2018 is focused by a focusing lens2014 into an input end 2011 of the PBGF 2004. A back-propagatingscattered Raman signal 2019 is reflected by a filter 2016, which isdesigned to only reflect Raman signal but not the pump light. The Ramansignal 2019 is focused by a focusing lens 2015 onto an output fiber 2017optically connected to the tunable filter or monochromator. Gas entersin through an gas inlet port 2012 which may comprise a filter.

The de-multiplexer 2005 is illustrated in FIG. 20C. The de-multiplexer2005 comprises a sealed chamber 2025 and a collection lens 2022 thatcollect pump light from an end 2020 of the PBGF 2004. The de-multiplexerfurther comprises a detector 2024 for monitoring the pump light thatpropagates through the PBGF 2004. The collection lens 2022 couple thepump light from the end 2020 of the PBGF 2004 and directs the pump lightonto the detector 2024.

FIG. 21A shows a Raman detection system based on detection of a forwardpropagating Raman signal. In certain embodiments, operation is in thestimulated Raman regime, where much stronger signal is expected due toamplification in the presence of high pump power. The configurationshown in FIG. 21A can also be used in a stimulated Raman mode to detectstimulate Raman emission.

The Raman detection system shown in FIG. 21A comprises a Raman pump2100, a multiplexer 2102 having a gas input port 2101, a PBG fiber 2103,and a demultiplexer 2104 having a gas output port 2105. The systemfurther includes a tunable filter or monochromator 2106 opticallycoupled to the demultiplexor 2104 so as to receive the Raman signaltherefrom. A detector 2107 is also included to sense the Raman signal.

The de-multiplexer 2104 is illustrated in FIG. 21B. The demultiplexer2104 comprises a sealed chamber 2118 that contains the gas. Pump andRaman signals are introduced into the chamber 2118 by an output end 2110of the PBG fiber 2103. The pump and Raman signals are collimated by acollimating lens 2113. The Raman signal 2119 passes through filter 2115,which is designed to reflect the pump light. This Raman signal 2119 isfocused by a lens 2114 onto the fiber 2111 that directs the light to thetunable filter or monochromator 2106. The pump light 2117 is reflectedby the filter 2115 onto a detector 2116 for power monitoring. Themultiplexer 2102 is similar to that shown in FIG. 19B.

Optical connection is provided between the optical components as shownin FIGS. 19A, 20A, and 21A although structures may be included betweenthese optical components as well. A variety of these components maycomprise optical fiber or optical fiber devices.

The systems and components shown in FIGS. 19A,-19C, 20A-20C, 21A, and21B are examples only. One skilled in the art may devise alternativeconfigurations and designs. For example, the filter 2016 shown in FIG.20B can be designed to reflect the pump light and pass the signal. Thefiber positions may be different in such an embodiment. Similarly, thefilter 2115 in FIG. 20B can be designed to reflect the Raman signal.Fiber positions may likewise be different. The pump monitoring functionsin FIGS. 20C and 21B can be eliminated. Fibers used to carry light tofilters and detectors in FIGS. 20B, 20B, 20C, and 21B can also beeliminated by using bulk optics. Alternatively, optical fibers can beused to guide the light. In some embodiments, the PBGF ends can besealed while gas can enter and exit the core of the PBGF through holesdrilled on the side of the fiber. In fact, many holes can be drilledalong the fiber to speed gas flow and make gas uniformly distributedalong the PBGF. In certain embodiments, however, gas enters and/or exitsthe PBGF through one or both endfaces.

Other variations are also possible. Additional components can be addedto the systems. Likewise, some components in FIGS. 19, 20, and 21 can beomitted and/or locations changed in different embodiments. Otherconfigurations and variations are also possible. The components can alsobe designed differently. For example, other configurations and designsthe multiplexers and demultiplexers may be used. In certain embodiments,one or both the multiplexer or demultiplexer may be excluded.Additionally, in any of the example applications described herein asingle continuous PBGF or separate portions of PBGF may be used. Otherapplications not discussed herein or in the '619 patent are possible aswell. Moreover, polarization-maintaining (PM) fibers as illustratedherein are often beneficial, and may be required for applications wherepreservation of polarization is important.

Conditional language used herein, such as, among others, “can,” “might,”“may,” “e.g.,” and the like, unless specifically stated otherwise, orotherwise understood within the context as used, is generally intendedto convey that certain embodiments include, while other embodiments donot include, certain features, elements and/or states. Thus, suchconditional language is not generally intended to imply that features,elements and/or states are in any way required for one or moreembodiments or that one or more embodiments necessarily include logicfor deciding, with or without author input or prompting, whether thesefeatures, elements and/or states are included or are to be performed inany particular embodiment. The terms “comprising,” “including,”“having,” and the like are synonymous and are used inclusively, in anopen-ended fashion, and do not exclude additional elements, features,acts, operations, and so forth. Also, the term “or” is used in itsinclusive sense (and not in its exclusive sense) so that when used, forexample, to connect a list of elements, the term “or” means one, some,or all of the elements in the list.

Accordingly, although the inventions described herein have beendisclosed in the context of certain embodiments and examples, it will beunderstood by those skilled in the art that the present inventionsextend beyond the specifically disclosed embodiments to otheralternative embodiments and/or uses of the inventions and obviousmodifications and equivalents thereof. In addition, while severalvariations of the inventions have been shown and described in detail,other modifications, which are within the scope of this invention, willbe readily apparent to those of skill in the art based upon thisdisclosure. It is also contemplated that various combinations orsub-combinations of the specific features and aspects of the embodimentsmay be made and still fall within the scope of the inventions. It shouldbe understood that various features and aspects of the disclosedembodiments can be combined with, or substituted for, one another inorder to form varying modes of the disclosed inventions. No element orgroup of elements is necessary or indispensable to each embodiment.Thus, it is intended that the scope of the present inventions hereindisclosed should not be limited by the particular disclosed embodimentsdescribed above.

1. A photonic bandgap fiber (PBGF) for propagating light having awavelength, λ, said fiber comprising: a core; and a cladding disposedabout said core, wherein said cladding comprises a plurality of regions,at least one region having a dimension, Λ, and is configured such thatthe cladding at least partially surrounds a hole having a holedimension, D, wherein said plurality of regions are arranged as arectangular lattice, wherein said portions of said cladding form websand nodes of said lattice such that at least a portion of said webs havea dimension, d₂, and are configured as higher aspect ratio claddingmaterial portions, wherein a portion of the webs are connected to saidnodes, at least a portion of said nodes having a dimension, d₁, andconfigured as lower aspect ratio cladding material portions, and whereinD/Λ is in a range from about 0.9 to about 0.995 and said PBGF isconfigured such that a relative wavelength transmission window Δλ/λc islarger than about 0.35.
 2. The photonic bandgap fiber of claim 1,wherein the webs have a second dimension d₃, such that the ratio of d₃to d₂ is at least approximately 5:1.
 3. The photonic bandgap fiber ofclaim 2, wherein the ratio of d₃ to d₂ is at least approximately 10:1.4. The photonic bandgap fiber of claim 2, wherein the ratio of d₃ to d₂is at least approximately 25:1.
 5. The photonic bandgap fiber accordingto claim 1, d₂/Λ is in a range from about 0.01 to about 0.1, and d₁/Λ ina range from about 0.1 to about 0.5,
 6. The photonic bandgap fiberaccording to claim 1, wherein Δλ/λc is in the range from about 0.35 toabout 0.65.
 7. The photonic bandgap fiber according to claim 1, whereinsaid rectangular lattice comprises 2 to 5 layers of cladding regions. 8.The photonic bandgap fiber according to claim 1, wherein said fiber isdrawn from a preform having webs and nodes having sizes larger than d₁and d₂, and said PBGF is configured such that a relative reduction inthe node size is substantially less than a relative reduction in the websize.
 9. The photonic bandgap fiber according to claim 8, wherein saidpreform is configured with preform parameters D/Λ=0.5-0.95,d₂/Λ=0.05-0.5, and d₁/Λ=0.2-0.6.
 10. The photonic bandgap fiber of claim1, wherein an air filling fraction of the cladding region exceeds about80%, and is up to about 95%.
 11. The photonic bandgap fiber according toclaim 1, wherein a dimension of said core is in a range from about 10 μmto about 100 μm.
 12. The photonic bandgap fiber according to claim 1,wherein said fiber is configured as a polarization maintaining (PM)square lattice (SQL) PBGF.
 13. The photonic bandgap fiber according toclaim 1, wherein said holes contain air.
 14. The photonic bandgap fiberaccording to claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said high indexcladding glass comprises silica.
 15. A method of fabricating a photonicbandgap fiber of claim 1, comprising: stacking capillaries and rods toform a rectangular lattice, said rods comprising an optical material;constructing a preform; drawing said preform into a fiber; andcontrolling core and cladding pressure during said drawing, said coreand cladding pressurized with different pressures, said controllingnarrowing a web dimension, d₂, and substantially limiting changes innode dimension, d₁, of said photonic bandgap fiber such that D/Λ is in arange from about 0.9 to about 0.99.
 16. The method of claim 15, whereincladding holes are pressurized from about 0.5 to about 2.5 psi and saidcore is pressurized from about of 0.2 to about 2 psi, and saidpressurization of cladding holes exceeds pressurization of said core.17. The method of claim 15, wherein a web dimension, d₂, is less thanabout 0.25 μm.
 18. A method of manufacturing a polarization maintainingphotonic bandgap fiber, comprising: forming a cane comprising a latticeof cladding regions having four-fold symmetry, a core, and a havingsubstantially circular outer diameter, said canes comprising an opticalmaterial; forming a circular preform using said cane; modifying saidcircular preform to form a non-circular shape; drawing said preform intoa fiber; and transforming said four-fold symmetry of said lattice intotwo-fold symmetry by deforming said core and said cladding during saiddrawing thereby introducing birefringence into said fiber.
 19. Themethod of claim 18, wherein said non-circular shape comprises flatboundary portions disposed opposite each other, and at a non-zero anglerelative to axes defining said lattice.
 20. The method of claim 18,wherein said lattice comprises a rectangular lattice.
 21. A system fortelecommunications, gas measurement, delivery of high peak power pulses,or laser pulse shaping, comprising a PBGF according to claim
 1. 22. ASQL photonic bandgap fiber having a cladding region comprising 2-10layers of air-holes and configured to provide a relative wavelengthtransmission window Δλ/λc larger than about 0.35 and minimumtransmission loss in a range from about 70 dB/km to about 0.1 dB/km. 23.A photonic bandgap fiber (PBGF) for propagating light having awavelength, λ, said fiber comprising: a core; and a cladding regiondisposed about said core, wherein said cladding region comprises aplurality of features, said features having a periodicity, Λ, and isconfigured such that the cladding region at least partially surrounds ahole having a hole dimension, D, wherein said plurality of features arearranged as a rectangular lattice, wherein said cladding regioncomprises webs and nodes of said lattice such that said webs have awidth, d₂, and are configured as higher aspect ratio cladding materialportions, wherein the webs are connected to said nodes, said nodeshaving a dimension, d₁, and configured as lower aspect ratio claddingmaterial portions, and wherein D/Λ is in a range from about 0.9 to about0.995 and said PBGF is configured such that a relative wavelengthtransmission window Δλ/λc is larger than about 0.35.
 24. A photonicbandgap fiber (PBGF) for propagating light having a wavelength, λ, saidfiber comprising: a core; and a cladding disposed about said core,wherein said cladding comprises a plurality of regions, at least oneregion having a dimension, Λ, and is configured such that the claddingat least partially surrounds a hole having a hole dimension, D, whereinsaid plurality of regions are arranged as a rectangular lattice, whereinsaid portions of said cladding form webs and nodes of said lattice suchthat at least a portion of said webs have a dimension, d₂, and areconfigured as higher aspect ratio cladding material portions, wherein aportion of the webs are connected to said nodes, at least a portion ofsaid nodes having a dimension, d₁, and configured as lower aspect ratiocladding material portions, and wherein the rectangular latticecomprises 2 to 5 layers of cladding material; and wherein D/Λ is in arange from about 0.9 to about 0.995 and said PBGF is configured suchthat d₂/d₁ is less than approximately 0.15, d₁/Λ is in a range fromabout 0.05 to about 0.3, and said PBGF is configured such that Δλ/λc isin the range from about 0.35 to about 0.85.
 25. The photonic bandgapfiber according to claim 24, wherein Δλ/λc is in the range from about0.5 to about 0.85.
 26. The photonic bandgap fiber according to claim 24,wherein the PBGF has a relative bandgap greater than approximately 0.4.27. A method of fabricating a PBGF of claim 24, the method comprising:constructing a perform, said constructing comprising stackingcapillaries and rods to form a rectangular lattice, said rods comprisingan optical material; drawing said preform into the PBG fiber; andcontrolling core and cladding pressure during said drawing, said coreand cladding pressurized with different pressures, said controllingrelatively narrowing a web dimension, d₂, and substantially limitingrelative changes in node dimension, d₁, of said PBGF such that D/Λ is ina range from about 0.9 to about 0.99.
 28. The method according to claim27, wherein cladding holes are pressurized from about 0.5 to about 2.5psi and said core is pressurized from about of 0.2 to about 2 psi, andsaid pressurization of cladding holes exceeds pressurization of saidcore.
 29. The method according to claim 27, wherein a web dimension, d₂,is less than about 0.25 μm.